The deve1opment of the idea of Holy War Essay Example for Free

The deve1opment of the idea of Holy state of contend EssayTo what extent was the military unit in Western society the MAIN reason for the deve1opment of the idea of Holy War?Violence in Western society was definitely a prominent factor in the culmination of the concept of Holy War. However, it is subjective to say that it was the most prominent. The growing influence and power of the Catholic Church was possibly the most pivotal factor in its development, as-over time-it was able to channel and unify the belligerents of Western atomic number 63 against a common, somewhat faceless, enemy. The role of the Church in the development of Holy War stretches far back before the ninth century, particularly in the literary works of the celebrated scholar St. Augustine of Hippo (d. 430). Augustines writings-which set out to articulate and understand when Christians were allowed to resort to acts of violence-came at a time when Christian morality and doctrine were bang-up according to t he needs and mental attitudes of the time, particularly considering the vacuum created by the disappearance of Roman imperial authorization.His attempt to reconcile the violence seen in everyday flavour with the customary pacifism of Christianity is referred to as the concept of the just struggle, which argues that violence can be morally justified under very specific conditions. Delving into the notion of what conventional a just war itself, Augustine focused on the notion of charity, stating the holy war seeks to bring back lapsed or heretical brethren into the fold of the Church, to continue their souls if not their bodies. Augustines definition of just war would set a theological standard for defining European holy wars throughout the weightlift era.The Truce and mollification of God was also a crucial factor in the development of Holy War. During the tenth and eleventh centuries, the movements gave knights within Europe a more than unionise ecclesiastical purpose throug h the development of the idea of chivalry. By toning violence with a much more moral and defensive inflection-a war in the inspection and repair of the weak-and by adding the religious oaths of fealty to the feudal act of homage, churchmen did their utmost to Christianize feudal society in general and to set limits on feudal violence in particular. The ultimate goal of the Truce and Peace of God was the creation of stop leagues, led by secular lords who would join together to maintain the peace and punish those who contravened their oaths by engaging in violent acts outside the set terms. Through the Peace of God movement the Church was starting to gain authority for deciding what constituted a just war, and is a chief example from the Church of its growing attempts to set the parameters for violence to better suit Christian ideals and purposes.The vision and language of the Church also changed in relation to the rise of Christian militarism. Sayings and phrases such as miles Chr isti (soldiers of Christ,) that had been in use since the New Testament were used to notice laymen, especially armed warriors who supported papal policies. Monks, to whom the term miles Christi was originally applied could not, even in this period, bear arms or fight.Instead, it would be the warriors of the First Crusade who would adopt many of the spiritual goals and some of the ascetic exercises characteristic of monks.4 The evolution of the Church during the tenth and eleventh centuries evolved through the taking up of a more combative quality and by latching it onto a religious doctrine that was already in existence. This was an essential factor in the cultural acclimation of Europeans to a revise concept of Holy War.As the role of the Church in society began to increase during the tenth and eleventh centuries, conceptions of Holy War changed to reflect the new aspirations of the gothic papacy. Evoking the imagery of martyrdom, the idea of suffering for ones religion to the po int of death, Pope Alexander II granted to the Christian knights in Spain a remission of the penance unavoidable for their sins. This concept of absolution for soldiers portrays a pivotal shift in papal policy, namely by the introduction of clemency for soldiers fighting in a war deemed holy or just.In conclusion, violence in Western society was undoubtedly a contri howeverory factor in the development of Holy War, but it was the cunning of the Catholic Church that created the final result. From successfully exploiting the contradictions found within the Old Testament, to glorifying warfare with the promise of the eternal reward, the Church tailored the concept of war in alignment with Christian tenets and ideals an ideology that would come to form the bedrock of the Crusades.

The Middle Ages Essay Example for Free

The Middle Ages EssayThe continued existence of the open-minded graphics in the Middle Ages was present because they were employ in monasteries as an introductory educating assistance for the comprehending of the Bible. Thus they comprised the basis of educating in the monastic schools which were thriving in monasteries. Till the 12 century only the organizations that proposed a normal and entire education existed. In the monastic scriptoria they do the copies of the creations of famous writers and Church Fathers, applied for erudition and consideration this textual copy was a material work. The closed monasteries performed a key function in safeguarding and conveying texts through with(predicate)out the most complicated Middle Ages periods. On the foundation of this pattern, a system of schools were evolved during friction match of decades focused on the formation of regal and church officials and in which more(prenominal) time was devoted to educating than in the customa ry monastic schools. Due to the prestigious capables involvement in some(prenominal) of such schools, an inclination to focus on the diverse fields of educating began to appear (Elmer 1965). Question 2. The educational progress in the Middle Ages was very productive.Grammar included the learning of Latin dialect and writing. Dialectic was a mandatory subject. Rhetoric included the basics of regulation, in addition to creating prose and poetry. Geometry encompassed the learning of Euclid, as well as, geography and natural history. Arithmetic used roman letters figures and with the account of the calendar. Music had the directions of the plain-song of the Church, idea of resonance, and the learning of synchronization. Astronomy, in addition to considering the divine bodies, encompassed physical science and chemistry.And exclusively the material for this subjects teaching was taken from the textbooks, written in very ancient times (Elmer 1965).. Question 3 The Socratic Method or S ocratic Debate) is a pattern of theoretical query in which the questioner researches the significances of other people opinions, to motivate reasonable conceiving and clarify the thoughts. This dialectical approach usually engages an oppositional converse in which the protector of one perspective is fighting with the protector of another one person can lead another to oppose himself in some way, reinforcing the inquirers position.The expression Socratic Questioning is applied to recount a kind of inquiring in which an initial inquiry is answered as if it were a reply. This makes the first like to create a new inquiry in light of the advancement of the dialogue (Elmer 1965).. Question 4 The influence of Greece was revealed very early in Roman learning and regular(a) became more powerful after the long sequence of profits. The Romans exposure was rapid, because they very quickly understood the benefits they could have from this more developed nation, more affluent than their own ci vilization.Being realistic, Romans realized the benefits to be received from a science of Greek, a worldwide dialect renowned to numerous of their adversaries, and grasped the associated significance of managing the dodge of oratory so greatly evolved in Greece (Elmer 1965).. Question 5 The semi governmental structure of Rome always was republican, thus all regulations were passed and all the officials chosen by a ballot of all the people. The standard of representation, nevertheless was obscure to the Romans.All regulations were passed, and all officials appointed, at so-called mass gathering of all the people. The nonexistence of bulletins, furthermore, made a distinct distinction between age-old and current political situation. Discussion and public locations were the only means of disseminating political ideas. Clearly, with this, public talking regime, that even nowadays has a distinctive effectiveness in state activities, should have been far more effective as a political to ol than nowadays.The political success was impossible to be reached without rhetoric skills. Thus the need in creating special oratory and rhetoric school was great (Elmer 1965).. Question 6 capital of Greece Speaking about the boys, schools educated in reading, composing and arithmetic, melodies, verse, games and gymnastics. Depending on the position of the family, the period of learning was from of 5 to 14 years old, for the richer 5 18 and at times to learners twenties in an academy where they were allowed to learn philosophy, moral code, and oratory.Lastly, the civilian young men went into a military preparation where they studied for a distich of years, until the age of twenty. Overseas slaves were not allowed to get any thing except an elementary education in Greece. Girls obtained little education (except possibly in the aristocrats houses through private teachers) they were usually sitting at home and had no political influence. The learning of a young female engaged only something needed to be done about the house (Elmer 1965).. In Sparta little boys started their military education very early at the age of seven.They were only give a fit out no footwear or other apparel, and not sufficient nourishment in order to make them enduring. At age of twenty they were put into higher(prenominal) positions in the army. To age of thirty they were devoted to the country then they were allowed to have a family. They learned to dance, read and compose, however athletics battle skills were the most important. Girls at age 7 were taught to read, compose, as well as gymnastics and endurance. In contrast to Athens, could take part in sports and were treated better (Elmer 1965)..In Rome, all children were also taught rhetoric, composing and mathematics. Boys in addition were taught battling and agriculture, and girls to cook food and sew. When Rome adopted Greek heritage, they also included Greek philosophy. Students learned texts Greek oratory, blood and science . Not all the children could have an education in Rome. Many of them learned just some fundamentals of reading and mathematics. Some girls were allowed to continue their education together with boys (Elmer 1965)..Question 7 One of the prime joining components of the Jewish belief, in detail, appears to be its focus on ritualized formal procedure for profoundly heritage events for slip anniversaries, weddings and memorial services. Thus the Hebraic tradition is very much alike Eastern customs for instance Hinduism and some currents of Buddhism, that similarly de- highlight authorized opinion schemes supporting solid, and often complicated and highly focused, heritage behaviors, peculiarities and activities.The Hebrew effect on Western heritage, thus, is at one time well renowned and all-encompassing. Hebrew tradition highlights the significance of chronicled activities. When Jewish could not sustain an appropriate moral and principled stability among themselves and their surroundi ngs, they allegedly bear exile, slavery and other communal and political troubles. Thus moral unity inside of the state and with their neighbors usually appears more important than strong armed force (Elmer 1965).. Question 8.Early Christian supernatural schools had a purpose to recognize a two-sided magical custom coming from Judaism and Christianity throughout their determining years. As Judaism and Christianity are considered to be the signs of Second tabernacle Judaism, the beliefs that evolved concurrently inside analogous chronicled contextures, the mystic custom maintained in their writing is correctly distinguished as demonstration of Jewish and Christian devoutness in the Hellenistic and Roman periods (Elmer 1965).. Question 9The early Christians were natural foes of the Greek culture. They came from idols to a church, and all of them had some of displeasure or even curse to the customary polytheism. Moreover. TheChristians had the task to discourse the gospel to all coun tries, and so alter the idol Gentiles. The cathedrals were thus inevitably opposed to the Olympians and to all of their expression in art (Elmer 1965).. Question 10 Two establishmentsthe church and the monasterywere the places of education in the early Middle Ages.Monasteries represent the groups of men called monks, who refused from the natural life to pray and please paragon through devotion and work. The monks and the priests of the churches assisted extend the Latin reading and composing, and conserved numerous precious old documents for us. They furthermore organized most of the European schools(Elmer 1965)..SourcesElmer H. Wilds Kenneth V. Lottich eds. (1965). The Foundations of Modem Education. New. York Holt. Rinehart and Winston

A History of Pottery

A History of PotteryThe production of pottery is oneness of the most ancient arts. The oldest know body of pottery dates from the Jomon dot (from about 10,500 to 400 BC) in Japan and even the earliest Jomon ceramics exhibit a incomparable sophistication of technique and design. Excavations in the full East give way revealed that primitive fired-clay vessels were made there more than 8,000 years ago. Potters were functional in Iran by about 5500 BC, and earthenware was probably being produced even earlier on the Iranian high plateau. Chinese potters had demonstrable characteristic techniques by about 5000 BC. In the New founding many pre-Columbian American cultures developed highly artistic pottery traditions.TYPES OF WARESPottery comprises three distinctive types of wares. The offshoot type, earthenware, has been made future(a) virtually the analogous techniques since ancient times only in the modern era has mass production brought changes in materials and methods. Earth enware is basically composed of clay a great deal blended claysand parched hard, the degree of roughness depending on the intensity of the heat. by and by the invention of glazing, earthenwares were coated with film over to render them waterproof sometimes glaze was applied decoratively. It was found that, when fired at expectant heat, the clay body became nonporous. This second type of pottery, called sto juvenileare, came to be preferred for domestic use.The third type of pottery is a Chinese invention that appeared when feldspathic material in a fusible state was incorporated in a sto newbornare composition. The ancient Chinese called decayed feldspar kaolin (meaning high place, where it was fenderly found) this substance is cognise in the West as china clay. Petuntse, or china stone, a less decayed, more fusible feldspathic material, was overly utilise in Chinese porcelain it forms a color cement that binds together the particles of less fusible kaolin. Significantly, the Chinese have never felt that high-quality porcelain must be either translucent or dust coat. devil types of porcelain evolved true porcelain, consisting of a kaolin hard-paste body, extremely blury and smooth, produced by high temperature firing, and soft porcelain, invariably translucent and school principal glazed, produced from a composition of ground glass and other ingredients including white clay and fired at a low temperature. The latter was widely produced by eighteenth-century European potters.It is believed that porcelain was first made by Chinese potters toward the end of the Han period (206 BC-AD 220), when pottery generally became more refined in body, form, and decoration. The Chinese made early vitrified wares (protoporcelain) before they developed their white vitreous ware (true porcelain) that was later so much value by Europeans.Regardless of time or place, basic pottery techniques have varied little turf out in ancient America, where the potters wheel w as unknow. Among the requisites of success are correct composition of the clay body by using balanced materials skill in geological formation the wet clay on the wheel or pressing it into molds and, most important, firing at the correct temperature. The subsist operation depends vitally on the experience, judgment, and technological skill of the potter.DECORATING TECHNIQUESIn the course of their long history potters have use many decorating techniques. Among the earliest, impressing and incising of wares are still favored. Ancient potters in Egypt, Mesopotamia, Greece, northern India, and the high regions of rally Asia (where primitive terra-cotta figures associated with religious cults were produced) frequently grace wares with impressed or incised designs. A notable incising technique developed more recently was that of Korean potters working in the Koryo period (918-1392). These artisans began by or formnting their celadon wares with delicately incised and impressed patterns and later developed elaborate inlaying by filling incised lines with colourize slip (semiliquid clay). discolor and white slip was utilise most effectively for inlaying colored porcelains. Decoration of this sort generally depends more on the skill of the artisan than on the complexness of the tools being utilise.An especially popular type of decoration involved the sgraffito, or scratched, technique used by Italian potters before the 15th century. This technique, which is thought to have reached Italy from the Near East, was probably derived from China, where it was first used during the Song (Sung) dynasty (960-1279). By the 16th century Italian potters working mainly in Padua and Bologna had developed swell skill in sgraffito, which entailed the incising of designs on red or buff earthenware that had been coated with ordinary transparent lead glaze, usually toned yellow or, sometimes, brown, copper, or immature. After firing, the wares were dipped into white clay slip so t hat a dark pattern could be cut on the surface. By cutting through the white slip, the artist produced a design on the exposed red or buff body. Pigments were also sometimes applied. After a further coating of lead glaze the ware was fired a second time.A sound knowledge of glazesboth utile and decorativeis vital to the potter. The origin of glazes and glazing techniques is unknown, but the fine lustrous glazes developed in China surely began with a simple glaze that served to cover earthenware and render it watertight. Chinese potters used 2 kinds of glazes, one composed basically of feldspar, and another(prenominal) produced by fusing silica of quartz or sand by means of a flux, generally of lead oxide.Chinese potters regarded glazes and glazing techniques as having prime importance to a lower place the Han emperors they made great efforts to improve this technology. The use of lead glaze increased, and wood ash was incorporated to impart a dullish brown or gray green coloring, somewhat blotchy and occasionally iridescent. These effects were entirely natural, as no coloring matter was added to the composition. Glazing techniques were modified under successive dynasties. Colored glazes were developed and used to brilliant effect by Tang (Tang) and Song potters, and a great diversity of brightly hued wares appeared over the centuries. galore(postnominal) connoisseurs feel that the pure white porcelain, called blanc de chine, which first appeared during the Ming dynasty, is the most serenely beautiful of all Chinese ceramics. Dehua (Te-hua) potters in Fujian (Fukien) province, working during the 17th century, produced their blanc de chine masterpieces in the purest white porcelain coated with a thick white glaze.Salt glaze, used by English potters during the early 1700s, may well have been known to the Chinese but was not used by them. Near Eastern potters glazed wares in ancient times. Potters in Mesopotamia and Iran commonly used an alkaline glaze made of quartz mixed with sodium and potassium. An admixture of colored metallic oxides, mostly lead, was introduced later.Painting on pottery and porcelain became richly colorful in many regions and periods. Decorative brush painting directly on the baked clay reached its zenith in China during the Ming dynasty (1368-1644), whose artists were highly skilled at painting in fired colorize. For a long period Chinese ceramic artists had used only black or brown pigment to decorate wares that were then covered with clear glaze. It is believed that the appearance in China of 13th-century brush- modify wares from Persia sparked a change. These works, multi-color in blue cobalt under the glaze, inspired the brushwork of the Chinese and the resulting so-called blue-and-white expressive style.Ming artists also excelled in painting over the glaze, using brilliant enamel colors. The overglaze technique, which evolved over two centuries, demanded correct preparation of the enamels, skill in applicat ion, and the proper (low) firing temperature. The overglaze enamel decorations executed during the reign of Chenghua (1465-87), which were never surpassed in China, incorporated flowers, foliage, and figure subjects against backgrounds of arabesques and scrollwork. Designs enclosed indoors dark blue outlines were filled in with brilliant color. Enamel decoration of superb quality was also executed in Japan during the Edo period (1615-1868) by celebrated artists and potters of the caliber of Kenzan, Kakiemon, and Ninsei.In the ancient Aegean the potters art developed continuously from the Neolithic period and through the periods of the Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations, culminating, in ancient Greece, in a unique type of painted pottery, which reached its height between the 6th and 4th centuries BC. The finest Greek pottery, especially Attic vases, was exquisitely proportioned and often decorated with finely painted relief work. Un same(p) artisans in Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Persia , the Attic potters did not apply heavy glaze to their wares. The unique gloss commonly seen on Attic pottery and similar wares made elsewhere in Greece still baffles those who have tried to act upon its formula and method of application. Neither a glaze nor a varnish, it is more marked on some areas, such as those painted black, than on others. Some experts conjecture that it may be attributed to illite or a similar clay mineral in a weak solution that was thinly applied to the surface of wares or mixed into the black paint used by the artists.In the Islamic world ceramic decorative art flowered with the creation of a great diversity of painted wares. Painted flame decoration on pottery originated in Mesopotamia and spread to ancient Egypt later, under Islam in Persia, this type of decoration on white-glazed wares became incredibly brilliant. Islamic luster-painted wares were later imitated by Italian potters during the Renaissance.MAJOR TRADITIONS IN THE WESTAfter the fall of th e ancient Roman Empire potters in Europe produced little other than repetitive utilitarian wares until the end of the Middle Ages.EarthenwareA distinctive type of earthenware known as majolica, which was derived from Chinese porcelain, appeared in Italy during the last quarter of the 14th century. It is now believed that this type of painted earthenware was inspired by the Hispano-Moresque luster-decorated ware of Spanish origin introduced to Italy by Majorcan seagoing traders.Majolica ware, whether thrown on the wheel or pressed into molds, was fired once to obtain a brown or buff body, then dipped in glaze composed of lead and tin oxide with a silicate of potash. The opaque glaze presented a surface that was suitable to receive decoration. A second firing after decoration fixed the white glaze to the body and the pigments to the glaze, so that the colors became permanently preserved. Frequently, the beauty of these wares was increased by dipping them in a translucent lead glaze c omposed of oxide of lead mixed with sand, potash, and salt. When certain luster pigments and enamels were used in all-over painting, wares had to be specially fired at low temperature. Application of metallic luster pigments required great skill because these colors were extremely vapourisable and needed special handling.Luca della Robbia (see della Robbia, family) did not, as has been held, invent the enamel tin-glazing process nevertheless, his work raised majolica production from a craft to high art in Italy. Not only did he use blue and white enamels in decorative work, but, as a sculptor, he also used the majolica technique to add brilliance to the surface of his productions. By the beginning of the 15th century Italian potters had abandoned the old familiar processes, and a revolution in style and techniques was under way. The severe style as followed primarily in the school of Tuscany continue to the end of the 15th century, but rules and principles slackened until the inclu sion of human figures in designs, antecedently frowned upon, was accepted. At the end of the 15th century Faenza became the thriving center of a reinvigorated pottery industry in Italy. A new, rich decorative style, known as istoriato, fired the imagination of potters, reaching its zenith in the workshops of Urbino.In early 17th-century England attractive slipwares were produced, including the slip-decorated earthenware that was a speciality of the Toft family of potters. A kind of tin-glazed earthenware was also produced in the Netherlands, principally at Delft, beginning in the mid-17th century. Termed delftware, it was among the first European wares to be decorated with motifs inspired by Chinese and Japanese models.Continental PorcelainsEventually, European potters, who much look up to the porcelain of the Far East, attempted to imitate it, but the formula remained elusive. Francesco de Medici, grand duke of Tuscany, produced an inferior type of soft-paste porcelain in his Flor ence workshop during the 16th century. In March 1709, Augustus II of comte de Saxe announced that his ceramist Johann Bottger (1682-1719) had discovered how to make porcelain. The first European royal porcelain manu manufactory was consequently established at Meissen (see Meissen ware) near Dresden, Germany. Throughout the century following the discovery of the porcelain formulawhen, despite the utmost precautions at Meissen, the secret leaked outmany rival factories were set up in Europe. Germany, Austria, Italy, France, and England soon had factories engaged in the production of wares much like those of Meissen.Porcelain figures were first produced in Meissen as table ornaments the earliest examples were formed as part of sweetmeat dishes. Many splendid wares issued from the royal factory, but none were more admired than the finely modeled and decorated porcelain figures imitated by almost every German, Austrian, Italian, and English factory of note. Widespread interest in figures of both pottery and porcelain has continued to the present. Johann Joachim Kandler (1706-75), a master modeler, was the most notable of the artisans engaged in this work at Meissen and rivaled the noted Franz Anton Bustelli (1723-63) of Nymphenburg (see Nymphenburg ware).The methods used to produce porcelain figures as developed by Kandler imparted a new dimension to the art. German porcelain figures were usually produced from molds, which, in turn, were cast from an original master model made of wax, clay, or, occasionally, wood. The use of molds facilitated unlimited reproduction. Because the figures shrank during firing, allowances had to be made in their sizes they were also provided with a small venthole in the back or base to permit excess heated air to escape. Because different factories placed these holes differently, their positions help determine the provenance and authenticity of given pieces. When considerable undercutting was necessary, porcelain figures were usually made in sections, using separate molds. Portions of elaborate groups and single figures were later joined by a specially trained assembler (known as a repairer) who usually worked from a master model.Europes second hard-paste porcelain factory began operations at Vienna in 1717. In the late 1700s at the royal Sevres (see Sevres ware) factory in France, potters experimented until they developed a remarkably white, finely textured body. Sevres wares were painted in unique colors that no other European factory could duplicate. The bleu de roi and rose Pompadour of Sevres wares captivated all Europe and, with the products of Meissen and Vienna, inspired English potters.English WaresThe finest English porcelainboth soft- and hard-pastewas made between about 1745 and 1775. The first English porcelain was probably produced at Chelsea (see Chelsea ware) under Charles Gouyn, but his successor Nicholas Sprimont, a Flemish silversmith who took over management in 1750, was responsible for the high-quality wares, especially the superb figures, for which the factory became famous. Factories at Worcester (see Worcester ware), Bow, and Derby also produced wares that rival those of the Continent.Led by the ambitious, energetic, and enterprising Josiah Wedgwood and his successors at the Etruria factory, English potters in the late 18th and early 19th centuries became resourceful and inventive. Wedgwoods contributions consisted mainly of a much improved creamware, his celebrated jasperware, so-called black basalt, and a series of fine figures created by famous modelers and artists. After Wedgwood, other potters of the first half of the 19th century developed a number of new wares. Of these, Parian ware was the most outstanding and commercially successful.The name of this ware was derived from Paros, the Greek island from which sculptors in ancient times obtained the creamy or ivory-tinted marble that Parian ware resembled. The first examples of this new product, described as st atuary porcelain, issued from Copeland and Garrets factory in 1842 and were immediately acclaimed. Two varieties of Parian ware were produced statuary parian, used in the making of figures and reproductions of sculpture, and hard-paste, or standard, parian, from which hollowware was made. Statuary parian, incorporating a glassy frit, is classified as soft porcelain. Standard parian, with a greater proportion of feldspar in the composition but no frit, is hard porcelain. Early parian statuary was ivory-tinted due to the front line of iron in the feldspar devoid of iron silicate. Suitable deposits were eventually located in Sweden and Ireland. Both English and American potters either obtained details of the original formula or worked out their own, and the resulting production of Parian wares on both sides of the Atlantic was enormous.Among the most beautiful and successful wares invented by 19th-century potters were those decorated in what came to be known in England as pate-sur-pat e, a paste-on-paste technique devised sometime after 1870 by Marc-Louis Solon (1835-1913) of Mintons in England. Pate-sur-pate, involving both modeling and painting techniques, was stained Parian ware decorated with reliefs in translucent tinted or white slip, the colors being laid one upon the other. Solon was inspired by a Chinese celadon case decorated with embossed flowers that he had admired in the museum at Sevres, where he worked for a time. At first his slip painting on biscuit porcelain simply bare-ass off he was successful, however, when he applied layers of slip to a damp surface. Minton wares decorated with pate-sur-pate became the most costly and coveted ceramic ornaments produced in England in the last quarter of the 19th century. Only a few English potters mastered Solons complex technique, although the work of his pupil, Alboin Birks, rivaled that of the master.20th-Century DevelopmentsBy the late 19th century, with the development of machinery and the introduction of new technologies, the age of mass production dawned and the potters art consequently suffered. Western ceramic wares declined markedly in quality of materials and decoration. Florid designs, gaudy coloring, and inartistic shapes became fashionable, and the resulting decadence continued into the 20th century. Not until the 1930s were signs of revival in the form and decoration of ceramics discernible, principally in the productions of artist-potters who were active in Western Europe and the United States. Many of these artist-potters arrived at their innovations by way of continuous experiment with materials and techniques. Others sought inspiration from primitive types of Japanese pottery or in the forms of ancient American Indian traditions. Since the end of World War II the design and decoration of ceramics in both Europe and the United States, especially ornamental wares, has been largely influenced by respective(prenominal) artist-artisans. Commercial products, such as table wares, have tended to reflect the styles and patterns developed by these potters, whose work has often shown striking originality.

Lesser Sac Cystic Lymphangioma: Gastric Outlet Obstruction

lesser Sac cystic Lymphangioma Gastric Outlet ObstructionCystic Lymhangioma of the Lesser Sac in adult presenting with features of Gastric Outlet Obstruction A Case declareS Suresh KumarSri Aurobindo Prasad DasVikram KateRunning title Lesser poke cystic lymphangioma causing gastric outlet obstructionKey Words abdominal cystic Lymphangioma Omental Bursa Outlet ObstructionArticle type Case ReportSection (speciality) Surgery- Gastrointestinal SurgeryAbstract Non- Structured (Case Report)ABSTRACTBackgroundCystic lymphangioma is a paediatric benign tumour, overtakes commonly in head and cervix uteri region. Adult Intraabdominal lymphangiomas are uncommon and only few cases of lesser scoop cystic lymphangioma are describe in the literature.Case presentationWe present a case of lesser sac cystic lymphangioma in a 26 year old lady who presented with features of gastric outlet obstruction. Clinical examination of the tum revealed 10 x 10 cm firm, non tender, mobile intraabdominal lump in the epigastrium.An upper gastrointestinal endoscopy showed possible external compression at the boy of the stomach. sonography of tum demonstrated a multicystic lesion measuring 10.2 X 8 cm, with versed echoes in one locule. Contrast enhanced computed tomography of the abdomen showed a deep multiloculated cystic lesion with hyper-dense content in the lesser sac extending up to the left over(p) lobe of the liver and indenting the stomach, lesser sac, and upper border of pancreas.On surgical exploration, a 10X8 cm multi cystic lesion with clear fluid was set in the lesser sac very close to the lesser curvature of stomach. The descending branches of left gastric which were found coursing through the cyst were ligated and the cyst was excised in Toto. Histopathological examination of the excised lesion showed features of cystic lymphangioma showing dilated lymphatic vessels with fibro-fatty tissue ingrained in the endothelial lining.Conclusionthough intraabdominal cystic lymph angiomas are very rare, it should be considered in all atypical cases of gastric outlet obstruction. A reasonable knowledge about these benign lesions go out aid in establishing the diagnosis and surgical management.Key WordsAbdominal cystic Lymphangioma Omental Bursa Outlet ObstructionBackgroundLymphagiomas are benign lesions generally occur as a result of lymphatic system malformation and infrequently reported after trauma. 90% of the cases are seen within the first two days of life and symptomatic presentation in adults is very rare. 1 Cystic lymphagiomas commonly involves neck and axilla but can occur anywhere in the body. though Intraabdominal lymphangioma accounts for Case presentationA 26-year old lady presented to surgical outpatient department with complaints of early satiety, vomiting few hours after food intake and vague impressiveness of upper abdomen. She also had features of dyspepsia for the past one year. She had developed pain and had a feeling of a mobile lump i n the upper abdomen for the past one month. There was no pancreatitis episode before. General physical examination was unremarkable. Clinical examination of the abdomen revealed 10 x 10 cm lump in the epigastrium which was firm in consistency. The lump was non tender, freely mobile and intra-abdominal.InvestigationsThe haemogram and biochemical profiles were within normal limits. An upper gastrointestinal endoscopy was make which showed normal mucous membrane of stomach with possible external compression at the boy of the stomach. Ultrasound of abdomen was suggestive of a multicystic lesion measuring 10 X 8 cm, with internal echoes in one locule, present superior to pancreas adjacent to the left lobe of the liver. Rest of abdomen was unremarkable.Contrast enhanced computed tomography of the abdomen showed a large multiloculated cystic lesion measuring 10.2 X 8 cm with hyper dense content in some loculi in the lesser sac extending up to the left lobe of the liver and indenting the s tomach, lesser sac, and upper border of pancreas with a few branches of left gastric vessels coursing through it. (Figure 1) Correlating the clinical, USG and CECT abdomen findings a diagnosis of possible lymphangioma was made and the patient was mean for exploratory laparotomy as the symptoms were persisting.Surgical managementOn surgical exploration, a 10X8 cm multi cystic lesion with clear fluid was found in the lesser sac very close to the lesser curvature of stomach. (Figure 2) The descending branches of left gastric which were found coursing through the cyst were ligated and the cyst was excised in Toto. (Figure 3) A poop out was placed in lesser sac and abdomen was closed in layers.Outcome and follow- upPostoperative course was uneventful. The drain was removed on the 3nd operative day and the patient was discharged on seventh post operative day. Histopathological examination of the excised lesion showed features of cystic lymphangioma showing dilated lymphatic vessels wit h fibro-fatty tissue ingrained in the endothelial lining. (Figure 4)Patient was followed up at one month, six months, one year and two year after operation. On each visit, clinical examination and USG was done which showed no evidence of recurrence. The lady is presently on regular follow up for past 2 years with no evidence recurrence trough date.DiscussionIntra-abdominal cystic lymphangiomas are uncommon benign tumours that can involve the mesentery, omentum, colon, spleen, pelvis, groin, and retroperitoneum 5, 6. We had a case of cystic lymphangioma in the lesser sac which is very rare. Cystic lymphangiomas are considered to originate from malformed or malpositioned lymphatic tissue. Factors such as abdominal trauma, inflammatory process, lymphatic obstruction due to radiation therapy or surgery may lead to secondary formation of such tumors. Our patient did not have any of the mentioned inciting factors the cause was probably congenital which had manifested late in life. commo nly known to present in childhood, lymphagiomas sometimes remain asymptomatic until late adulthood, and are discovered during evaluation of vague and chronic nonspecific symptoms like anorexia, nausea, vomiting, fatigue, and weighting loss, which are secondary to wad effect 4. This was seen in our patient who had early satiety and vomiting after food intake probably due to mass effect and had a vague feeling of mass in the abdomen. Other ways of presentation such as smashing abdomen, mimicking acute appendicitis has also been reported 3.Contrast CT done in our patient revealed multicystic lesion measuring 10.2 X 8 cm, present superior to pancreas, in the lesser sac adjacent to the left lobe of the liver. Cystic lymphangioma usually presents as a large multilocular cystic mass with enhanced walls with multiple thin septa containing uncomplicated fluid on abdominal echography and contrast enhanced computerized tomography which is very often diagnostic 7.The differential diagnosis inc ludes cystic lesions of, enteric urogenital or mesothelial origin. Pancreatic pseudocysts from trauma, dermoid cysts or teratomas and cystic degeneration of solid tumours are also to be considered before making this rare diagnosis.Management of intra-abdominal cystic tumours depends on the clinical symptoms, size of the cyst, and the degree of clinical suspicion for malignancy. Imaging usually provides useful information for the planning of treatment. Complete removal of the tumour offers an excellent prognosis and laparoscopic removal of lymphangioma also shown feasible in few reports. We therefore decided to perform a laparotomy and complete excision of the cyst was done. On the other hand, recurrence has been reported in 10% of patients in whom primary resection was incomplete.9 If the feeding lymphatics are not completely ligated, chylous ascites may also occur.ConclusionThough intra-abdominal cystic lymphangiomas are very rare, it should be considered in cases of gastric or bil iary obstruction where the cause could not be recognized clearly. Reasonable knowledge about these benign lesions will aid in establishing the diagnosis during such instances. Complete surgical excision offers the best chance for cure and should be attempted in all the cases to avoid recurrence.Consent written informed consent was obtained from the patient for publication of this Case report and any accompanying images. A copy of the written consent is available for inspection by the Editor of this journal.Competing interests disclosuresThe authors have no potential or real conflict of interestsThe authors have no financial support or ties to discloseThe authors have no financial or non financial competing interests to declareAuthors contributionsSuresh Kumar S, Das S A and Kate V diagnosed and managed the case. Suresh Kumar S, Das S A did the literature search. Suresh Kumar S and Das S A collected the images. Suresh Kumar S and Kate V drafted the manuscript. All authors read and a pproved the final manuscript.ReferencesHanagiri T, Baba M, Shimabukuro T, Hashimoto M, Takemoto H, Inoue A, Sugitani A, Shirakusa T. Lymphangioma in the small intestine Report of a case and review of the Japanese literature. Surgery Today 1992 22 363-367Roisman I, Manny J, Fields S, Shiloni E. Intra-abdominal lymphangioma. Br J Surg 1989 76 485-489Benjamin HL Tan, Teegan Lim. Cystic lymphangioma of the lesser sac presenting as acute appendicitis A case report. Cases J. 2008 1 147.Massoud Baghai-Wadji, Azadeh JalalKamali, ToorajReza Mirshekari. Cystic lymphangioma of the lesser sac. Can J Surg. 2006 49 292.Fernandez Hurtado I, Bregant J, Mulet Ferragut JF, et al. abdominal cystic lymphangioma. Cir Pediatr. 1998 11 171-3Chuang-Wei Chen, Sheng-Der Hsu, Chien-Hua Lin, Ming-Fang Cheng, Jyh-Cherng Yu Cystic lymphangioma of the jejunal mesentery in an adult A case report. World J Gastroenterol 2005 11 5084-5086Angela D. Levy, Vito Cantisani, Markku Miettinen. Abdominal Lymphangiomas Imagi ng Features with Pathologic Correlation. AJR 2004 182 1485-14918. Kenney B, Smith B, Bensoussan AL. Laparoscopic excision of a cystic lymphangioma. J Laparoendosc Surg. 1996 6 S99-101.9. Steyaert H, Guitard J, Moscovici J, Juricic M, Vaysse P, Juskiewenski S Abdominal cystic lymphangioma in children benign lesions that can have a proliferative course. J Pediatr Surg 1996, 31677-680.1

Effects of War on Fuel Market Equilibrium

Effects of War on Fuel Market EquilibriumFuel, oil or in some countries cal take heavy weapon is undeniable as important commodities and resources for many sectors in the populace especi each(prenominal)y in transportation, providing energy and industries. Let take a sprightliness on discharge sales. The sale of world oil is USD 1,600 billion in the socio-economic class 2008. Most countries without this natural resource result have to pay in order to shit this resource and in the year 2000, Saudi Arabia is reported gained close to USD 80 billion dollars as export income. This shows that the demand of this resource is becoming uplifted and of play important as energy sources.Based on International Energy Agency (IEA) report on 2009, top three importers of oil atomic design 18 join States of America, Japan and China. Glob in ally, provoke market demands are change magnitude every year. According to IEA on December 2010 report, global oil product is revised up from 130, 0 00 (Kb/d) lay per day to 87.4 million barrels per day and it is expected 260 000 barrels per day to 88 million barrels per day in 2011. That was a huge increasing demandWhat does demand means? Demand is determined as total amount of goods required and able to be purchased by consumers at various expenditure levels in certain catch. Besides that, demand also related with former(a) variable which is amount and damage. In measuring demand quantity for oil and gondola elevator car market, we preempt forecast that other variables also reaching consumption are remains.Nowadays, oil productions are dominated by Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) which led by Arab Saudi and the others are five of Middle East producers which produce 75% of global output. The world oil production chart is shows in manakin 1 (b) as per belowAs we know, crude oil plays important role in every sectors of world economic from heavy industries to agriculture sector. erstwhile state of war outbreak in a country especially one of the main producers of oil in the world, then the impact will be dust out all over the world. Why? oil color prices will causes increasing in prices and directly infecting world economics too. As an example, Iraq invasion in capital of Kuwait in 1990 has reduced the supply of oil as Kuwait contributed 2.5% of world oil production while Iraq contributed 5%. Therefore, this has cut off oil supplies for about 7.5%. Thus, we could calculate the percentage of oil production existence cut off from country AHowever, this will reduce the aggregate of oil supply and up pressure on the price level and indirectly causing decline of total output. See? The impacts are interrelated with each other and thus affect the world economy. According to the law of demand, it says that when prices increases, demand quantity decreases and when price decreases, demand quantity increases. This is sh take in reckon 2In the other hand, we can predict the effect on proportion quantity and prices when there are changes in demand or supply. Equilibrium is the term utilise in economics theatre of operations which means a condition where all variables have reached established position with no tendency to change.Market equilibrium will maintain as no market forces which affecting demand and supply. Demand and supply are shifting to the left-hand(a) or to the right as a response to changes in decisive variables. In country A case, terminate supply disruptions happen and thus causing price increase and demanding falling decrease. This is due to economics law states that all accompanimentors all equal as the price of goods or services increase and the demand will decrease. This is shown in figure 3(a) as per belowAs the fuel price increase from P1 to P2, quantity demanded for fuel will decrease. This relation are referred to Law of Demand where when price increases demand quantities will decreases and when price decreases, the demand quant ity will increases. Therefore, consumers will reduce their demand for cars and this will result shifting supply curve to left.According to supply change, when supply decreases and the demand remain unchanged, the equilibrium price will increase and at the same time equilibrium quantity will decrease. Lets look what happen while Hurricane Katrina blows US in folk 2005. The price was raised by sellers and in certain states much(prenominal) as Arkansas and Kentucky there are go aroundage of supplies. Shortage of supplies also called excess demand. Therefore, when the war broke out in country A, then we can predict that the same scenario will happen and the situation might be worst. This will results in rise in the equilibrium price of fuel. The demand of oil is inelastic as we couldnt replace or substitute oil as energy sources. nonresilient of demand here means that the price change ratio is bigger than ratio of quantity change. Therefore, price change will give more square effec t.Once the fuel or petrol affected due to war in country A, car market also will influence as they are classified as complementary goods. Complementary good means that goods which can be consumed together to get satisfaction. Therefore, the effectuate of war on car market are discussed as per below chapter.Effects of war on car market equilibriumWhat is the relationship between oil and car? Actually, we can say that if there is no oil, major problems will be faced by transportation sectors much(prenominal) as lorry, tanks, public vehicles, industries and also our daily transportation. In the year 2009, Malaysia faced shortage of diesel supply and what is the effect? There are stacks of vehicles which used diesel stocked because of this. The same phenomena are predicted to be happening when country A involved in war. In wider view, there are about eight millions of vehicles all over the world which used fuel in the year 2000 and this number is greatly increased every yearSo what a re the impacts if the fuel price increased? Fuel consumers may learn to drive less, using alternative transportation such as commuter, looking for fuel resource substitution and they might choose electric based engines such as hybrid car. Therefore, there are close relationship between fuel price and car market as fuel and car are complementary on each other. By the way, what will happen if the price of fuel increasing whiles the price of car increase too caused by measure? We could imagine that there is lot of cars with various engine power offered with low pricesAs the fuel price is higher need to be paid by consumers, the cost of petrol guzzling vehicle such as BMW and Mercedes Benz will increased. Thus, the demand of luxury cars will decline. As an alternative, consumers in the market will look for cost saving vehicles as solution. They might change to lower power vehicles in cubic centimeter (cc) such as PERODUA cars in the market and etc. as solution if the war happens fo r short term.This has been proved by a research which has been done by economist at Imperial College, London recommended that consumers will tends to look for more efficient energy cars, selecting and prioritize public transport for trips and minimize their travel distances. As a result, there will be lots of luxury used car offered in the market and demand curve will shift to left as shown in figure 5.In the other hand, what will happen if the war continues for long term? In this case, we can assume that production of new cars will be reduced or being stop at all until the situation recovered and thus, demand curve will decrease. This effect towards demand curve and supply curve is illustrated in figure 6Tax imposition effects of the fuel marketTax is implemented by establishment who rules in a country towards sellers for each social unit of goods being sold. Therefore, we as consumer had to pay higher cost to get those items we required. As an example, we are paying additional 1 % which total out 6% of government measure for ASTRO services since February 2011.Tax which imposed by government means increase cost for sellers. Thus, the task will shift the supply curve the left as in figure 7. From the figure, the price paid by consumers and price received by sellers are shown as the different at valuate order of t. The amount of tax which collected by government is on area P1 P2 BC, while amount borne by consumer are on P0 P2 BE and the seller tax is on area P1 P0 EC. In most countries, the implementation on tax fuels is intended for transportation sector and it is function as one of revenue source.As the demand of car is elastic, it means that demand is responding to price change. In this case, the supplier or producer must(prenominal) borne or absorb the tax. When demand is elastic, the effect of tax implemented is procreation the price as mentioned in figure 8. However, equilibrium quantity will decrease in this situation.At war situation, demand for fuel will drop and demand for substitutes will increase. Among substitution choices at this time is using alternative electric vehicles and focusing on public transportation such as train.In 2008, Malaysia is ranked at 26th place as world oil producers with 753,700 billion barrels per day (Malaysia is also one of OPEC member).The number of production is small if compared to Arab Saudi which produces 10,250,000 billion barrels per day. Due to war impact even though we still have the resources, the fuel must be used with most efficient way as Malaysia just began to learn, implement and use other energy alternative such as coal in electric plant.Who will soften the taxes imposed on fuel?Taxes consist of direct and indirect tax. Then where does tax income goes to? Those incomes which collected by a government were used for development of country, public works, education, enforcement of law, health care and etc. Big issue arising on the tax imposed by government is who will bear the co st? Actually when the demand is inelastic, the producer or seller has the ability to pass most or all of indirect tax to consumer by raising the market price of car. What is mean by elasticity? Elasticity is defined as sensitivity measurement of a particular variable towards one of its determinant such as price. Therefore when demand of car market price is elastic, the producer cannot simply pass the tax to the consumer but they have to bear bulk of the tax by themselves. Therefore, the tax borne by consumer and supplier is shown in figure 9 as belowUsually, suppliers will hand over the tax which borne by them in whatever goods or services to consumer. The different is whether the amount is small or big. Price elasticity of demand measures response of quantity demanded by consumer of a particular good towards change in the price of the good.What does indirect tax mean from figure 9 as above? Indirect tax is the tax which imposed by government to suppliers. Examples for these taxes a re duties on alcohol, cigarettes and fuel. For certain reasons, government levied tax as a strategy to improve environment. In other words, tax is opposite of subsidies which given by government.Logically, consumers have to pay the tax for fuel as it is needed daily. Whether we move to a destination to another by our own car, taxi, buses, by flight or by sea, it all used fuel as energy. As country A still recovering from war, it means that world supplies for fuel will take times to gain stable again. In countries like Japan, China and Denmark, transformation has begun to develop electric vehicles. In Japan, their cab has used fully electric operational cab in Tokyo. Malaysia which also affected by high fuel prices should learn and start to develop electric vehicles too and should concentrate on transformation.As we know, the increasing price of fuel will directly influence the other daily goods such as milk, sugar, meat and etc. to rise too. Thus, consumers have to bear the effects in the other side. Therefore, it is unfair all incumbrances of taxes being bonded by consumers.ConclusionsAs fuel demands are increasing all over the world, alternative energy substitution of fuel are highly recommended. According to Bob Lutz from General Motors, when the price of oil rising and stay, it has negative effects to economy as oil is used in the production of virtually in everything, including steel, aluminum, plastics, rubber, fabrics, transportation, and food (Daniel Gross, 2008). Consumers may not hold the high prices for longer period of time.Implementation of tax must be review from time to time and should be studied on the impacts to consumer, market and economy. Too high taxes will burden consumers and of course the price of goods will rise too. Therefore, demand of goods will decreaseIn order to implement the taxes, government in country A must consider many aspects before the tax is being implemented. This step actually will give impact for long term. Why? We h ave seen the effect of high fuel price towards car market. Nowadays, car is considered as must have or needed at least one unit in a family or a household. However, lots of car offered in the market is also beneficial to consumers as we can choose the flake of car we like with the specifications we like.That was for short term effect. What will happen if the main producer of fuel continuously involved in crisis or the crisis took longer period to be calm and run? The effect will be worsening and as could be as what had happen in 1970s where fuel supplies in West countries in that year were in critical situation.Political stabilities also play important roles in influencing fuel price especially in Middle East countries. We know the fact that Middle East countries are rich with oil resources. Latest crisis in Libya has almost cut off about 300,000 barrels of fuel production. According to Oil and Gas Journal (OGJ), Libya own total proven oil reserves of 46.4 billion barrels as Janua ry 2011 which is the largest in Africa. Thus, war situation or this type of crisis has put fuel supplies at risk. Traders and analysis is watching closely on strikes especially in countries such as Iran as continuous oil price spikes could cause inflation and infecting global economic growth. Latest news, Oil companies reported has shut off their plant as the country is still in chaos. What is gravel worsening is the other country which is also producing fuel, Oman also involve crisis. Thats frightened as the risk of oil production surely will stop.Words 2,804

Call Of The Wild :: essays research papers

Call of the Wild Jack Londons thrilling epic tale of adventure and bravery, through the eyes of a part St. Bernard, part German Shepherd named limp. Our story opens with the author describing the lifestyle of this pampered dog on the premises of his masters home, Judge Miller, in the Santa Clara valley. tin London describes a particular gold rush that transpired in 1897 and it was named the Klondike gold rush. Very early in the story line, jerk is kidnapped by Manuel, one of the gardeners helpers, whos major weakness was gambling. Buck was sold to two men named Francois and Perrault. Buck was shipped to Alaska to serve as a sled dog during the Klondike gold rush. One of my favorite lines in the book is where John London writes "Bucks first day ashore was like a nightmare." "Every hour was filled with shock and surprise." (Page 12) You can see that he is trying to pass along how different his new life is now. Buck was placed among a pack of savage husky, wolf-like dogs. (Billie, Joe, Sol-leks, Dave, Spitz and Curly are just to name a few. After Buck had completed his wearisome labor his body had become feeble and weak. (Injuries also added to this dilemma later on.) The other savage animals that Buck is placed with, live by only one rule, the law of club and fang. Buck is placed in several predicaments where he must defend himself against the other savage animals and he is discipline for it. Buck loved his master, John Thorton who saved Bucks life from Hal, Bucks master, prior to this event. Following his departure, Buck finds himself in the wild, trusting and depending on his primal instincts. Learning how to pursue his regimen is but one of the many milestones in the book that Buck must overcome. (Jack London describes how Buck hunted down a rabbit for food.

Alexander Ghram Bell :: essays research papers

black lovage Graham Bells invention of the telephone grew out of his research into ways to improve the telegraph. His soul purpose was to help the deafen elate again. Alexander Graham Bell was not trying to invent the telephone, he was just trying to help out people in need. Young Alexander Graham Bell, Aleck as his family knew him, took to reading and writing at a precociously young age. Bell family lore told of his insistence upon mailing a letter to a family friend well before he had grasped any understanding of the alphabet. As he matured, Aleck displayed what came to be known as a Bell family trademark--an expressive, flexible, and resonant speech voice. Born in Edinburgh, Scotland, the inventor spent one year at a private school, two years at Edinburghs Royal High trail (from which he graduated at 14), and attended a few lectures at Edinburgh University and at University College in London, scarcely he was largely family-trained and self-taught. He moved to the united St ates, settling in Boston, before beginning his career as an inventor. With each passing year, Alexander Graham Bells intellectual horizons broadened. By the time he was 16, he was teaching music and elocution at a boys boarding school. He and his brothers, Melville and Edward, traveled throughout Scotland impressing audiences with demonstrations of their fathers Visible Speech techniques. Visible Speech was invented by their father but he didnt have much luck with it. It is a technique were ever sound that comes out of a persons mouth can be correspond with a visual character. In 1871, Bell began giving instruction in Visible Speech at the Boston School for Deaf Mutes. Attempting to teach deaf children to speak was considered revolutionary. Bells work with his deaf students in Boston would prove to be a watershed event in his life. One of his pupils, Mabel Hubbard, was the daughter of a man--Gardiner Greene Hubbard-- who would go on to play a vital role in Bells life and work. Whil e Mabel herself would one day become his wife. Bell felt that a flesh had been set and he would go on to consider himself, above all else, a teacher of the deaf Bell had the good fortune to discover and incite Thomas Watson, a young repair mechanic and model maker, who assisted him enthusiastically in devising an apparatus for transmitting sound by electricity. As the two collaborated on ways to refine Bells "harmonic telegraph," Bell shared with Watson his vision of what would become the telephone.